Ochre is an iron-rich mineral pigment that was used by many ancient civilizations for color, decoration and practical tasks such as preserving animal hides and tanning clothing. Recent analysis of fragments of ochre at several Neanderthal sites is adding something new to the picture: that Neanderthals used ochre for symbolic purposes like drawing and marking surfaces.

While it has long been suspected that Neanderthals used ochre to decorate their bodies, clothing and surfaces, definitive evidence has been hard to find. To look for this missing proof, Francesco d'Errico at the University of Bordeaux, France, and colleagues studied 16 pieces of ochre, up to 70,000 years old, from Neanderthal sites in Crimea and Ukraine. They analyzed their composition and surface markings with sophisticated tools such as scanning electron microscopes and portable X-ray scanners to understand how they were used.

Archaeological ochre pieces from Crimea. Studied archaeological coloring materials from ZSKV, ZSKVI, PRMII and MUH. Credit: d’Errico et al., Sci. Adv. 11, eadx4722

Neanderthal crayons

One of the most significant findings was a yellow ochre piece from the Micoquian Age (approximately 130,000 years ago to 33,000 years ago) that had been deliberately scraped into a crayon-like object. Detailed analysis revealed that its tip had been repeatedly resharpened and reused. The researchers suggest that its shape was not caused by wear but was intentionally designed as a crayon for making marks. This could mean that Neanderthals were engaging in symbolic activities such as drawing.

"The deliberate shaping and reuse of crayons, the engraved motifs, and the evidence for curated tools collectively support the conclusion that at least some ochre materials were involved in symbolic activities," wrote the team in a paper published in the journal Science Advances.

Scraped and ground ochre crayon (ZSKV-06). Ochre fragment ZSKV-06. (A) General view. (B) Macrophoto on the central portion showing rough scraping marks aligned with the object’s main axis, partially removed by oblique striations from grinding. Scale bars, 1 cm. Credit: d’Errico et al., Sci. Adv. 11, eadx4722

The scientists also identified another fragment with engraved, polished surfaces and distinct fractures that strongly hint at its use as a mark-making implement. A third fragment had microscopic traces of repeated grinding and sharpening, similar to the crayon-like object. It was therefore also most likely used as a marking tool over an extended period.

Challenging the Neanderthal stereotype

These small pieces of ochre tell us much more about the Neanderthals who lived at these sites. By showing they were making tools for marking and symbolism, the findings can help us trace the origins of symbolic behavior (creating and using objects to convey meaning). This is a key sign of advanced thought.

Ochre fragment ZSKV-05. (A) Flat surface modified with deep, slightly curved, subparallel incisions. (B) Close-up of the narrow edge showing pits (arrows) at the starting points of the incised lines, formed by the pressure of the incising tool. (C) Microscopic view revealing diagnostic parallel, equally spaced grooves (arrows) indicating the use of the same tool, along with smoothing of the prominent areas between the incisions, suggesting postmodification handling and curation. Scale bars, 1 cm (A) and 5 mm [(B) and (C)]. Credit: d’Errico et al., Sci. Adv. 11, eadx4722

The research also suggests that Neanderthals engaged in cultural practices similar to those of early Homo sapiens, giving us a more rounded picture of what they were like and challenging the stereotype that Neanderthals were simple, brutish cavepeople.

Edited by Gaby Clark, reviewed by Robert Egan